History of capitalism

 The origins of capitalism are complicated, and stretch back to the 16th century, when the British systems of power largely collapsed after the Black Death, a deadly plague that killed off up to 60% of Europe’s entire population. A newly formed class of merchants began to trade with foreign countries, and this newfound demand for exports hurt local economies and began to dictate overall production and pricing of goods. It also led to the spread of colonialism, slavery, and imperialism.

The death of feudalism — a hierarchical system often seen as oppressive that kept poor people bonded to their masters’ land, which they farmed in exchange for a place to live and military protection — also left rural British peasants with no homes and no work, which eventually funneled them away from the countryside and into urban centers. These former farm workers then had to sell their labor in a newly competitive work environment in order to survive, while the state worked in concert with the new capitalists to establish a maximum wage and “clamp down on beggars.”

By the 18th century, England had converted into an industrial nation, and the dawn of the Industrial Revolution saw an explosion of manufacturing overtake the island. It is within those smoky factories and flammable textile mills that our modern idea of capitalism — and the opposition to it — began to fully flourish. In 1776, Scottish economist Adam Smith published his treatise, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, which is regarded as the bedrock upon which modern capitalism stands. Though some of his specific ideas about value and labor differ from those of modern economists, Smith is often called “the father of capitalism.

Socialist system in capitalism

 The socialist challenge of capitalism required an effective response. The first chapter of this rivalry was opened in the late nineteenth century. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, in his struggle with the strong German socialist movement, turned towards the introduction of welfare institutions. Pension system, health care, and other welfare institutions were introduced for workers to take the wind out of the sail of the emerging socialist movement. For these developments, the Great Depression of the early 1930s brought about a turning point. The Swedish Social Democratic government, elected in 1932, started building a welfare state. President Franklin D. Roosevelt also initiated major social legislation and the introduction of the social security system. The comprehensive system of the welfare state, however, emerged only after World War II in Western Europe. Capitalism, in contrast with its nineteenth century features, initiated widespread social legislation. Paid vacation, short workweek, nationwide pension systems, free health care, education, maternity leave, cheap housing, and many other institutions were established. Human rights were re-evaluated and the right to work, i.e., a full-employment policy, became dominant. Inequity, at least in the middle layers of the society, markedly diminished in the advanced capitalist countries.

The period after the Second World War also saw the spread of mixed economies. Almost all of the advanced Western European countries, led by France and Britain, nationalized entire sectors of their economies and established new state-owned firms in various industries.

Capitalism underwent a spectacular transformation. In his article on The Instability of Capitalism (1928), the leading Austrian-American economist, Joseph Schumpeter, prophesied the transformation of the system and the fading of the original meaning of capitalism. He maintained that capitalism is inherently stable and able to recover from great crises, but generates socio-intellectual effects discordant with its spirit and institutions. As a consequence, ‘Capitalism is … in so obvious process of transformation into something else … [that] it will be merely matter of taste and terminology to call it Socialism or not.’

Towards the end of the twentieth century, capitalism adjusted to the new historical situation and markedly transformed but preserved entrepreneurial interest, market flexibility, efficiency, competitiveness, and reached its highest prosperity and fastest growth rate ever. The Western core countries of the world system successfully adjusted to a new technological-communication revolution and became the leader of new technologies and the rise of postindustrial society.

During the long period of postwar prosperity, a part of the former Asian and South European peripheries of the capitalist world system reached a higher than average growth and became an integrated and equal part of the core countries. After a long period of rivalry, capitalism emerged victorious while the parallel world system of centrally planned state socialism, which conquered one-third of the world and influenced an even greater part by its policy after World War II, collapsed in 1989–91. The former Soviet Bloc countries introduced radical market reforms, thus re-establishing capitalism. During the last third of the twentieth century, laissez-faire capitalism became the leading model again. Neo-liberal economics triumphed and challenged mixed economy and welfare state.

Capitalism in late twentieth century reached a new stage in its history. The main trend of this new age is globalization. National boundaries and national economies rapidly lost their importance. Multi- or transnational companies penetrated previously independent economies. Foreign direct investment became instrumental all over the world, including the advanced core countries. Towards the end of the 1990s nearly one-third of American exports and two-thirds of imports were intrafirm deliveries. About one-third of French, Dutch, and British industrial output was produced and roughly 25–40 percent of their research and development expenditure was financed by affiliates of transnational companies. In Ireland, and former state-socialist Hungary, foreign affiliates produced two-thirds of industrial output and financed roughly 70 percent of research and development expenditures.

While globalization, in some cases, contributed to a successful catching-up process with the core, it also preserved and even strengthened the core–periphery inequity. The gap between advanced core and the peripheries was growing considerably: intercountry income spread was 10:1 in 1913; 26:1 in 1950, but it increased to 40:1 at the end of the twentieth century. A newly globalized but even more polarized capitalist world system, dominated by an expanding Western core, was emerging at the turn of the millennium.

Capitalism : An overview

 Capitalism has its own particular geography, which must be attended to if we are to adequately understand its nature, and limits. Our very definition of capitalism references the form capitalist practices took once they arrived in Europe, and discourses presenting capitalism as the best economic system neglect the violence inflicted on other peoples and places in making this happen. This European version of capitalism fails to deliver on its promise of prosperity in part due to geography. Capitalism's spatial extent means that it produces persistent uneven geographical development, enriching some at the expense of others and necessitating experimentation with alternatives. Its dialectical relationship with labor and the more-than-human world can undermine its coherence from the outside. Finally, the persistence of more-than-capitalist practices is testimony to capitalism's less than hegemonic status in practice, notwithstanding discourses presenting it as currently globally hegemonic.

IELTS preparation:short and free

 STOP PAYING FOR IELTS PREPARATION"

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Its completely out of my understanding why people spend money to prepare for IELTS.

I see a lot of people confused and worried about where should they prepare for IELTS test.

Some take classes on-campus while some join skype sessions and pay large sum of cash for these services.

I just want everyone to know that there is a free self-paced online course available on the internet which is designed by the academics of University of Queensland.

This innovative preparation course has been designed and written by experienced English teaching professionals from The University of Queensland, an IELTS testing centre and one of the world’s leading centres of learning. All of the course writers have extensive experience enabling students to reach their academic IELTS goal of entering a university where English is the primary language.

Now whats the point of paying money and learning from someone who has no official association with IELTS test centre.

https://www.edx.org/course/ielts-academic-test-preparation

P.S Those who are looking for IELTS General module please know the fact that Academic is always more difficult. So it's advised that you first take this course and then buy one book of IELTS 9 10 OR 11 and prepare from it for general test. There is just a minor difference only in the writing module which you would know from the book.

For those who are asking about the mock exam. Well you can buy a simple IELTS book IELTS 9, IELTS 10 or IELTS 11. It comes with a CD and you can conduct your own exam at home.

Link for mock tests:

https://ieltsonlinetests.com

Website link added for mock tests. جزاءک اللہ

Please note that if you cant prepare it by yourself and you want someone to spoon feed you i.e. in an academy/coaching/tuition, you'll never be able to get good marks at exam. How can you expect that a local guy can teach better than the faculty of Queensland and those people who work at IELTS?

Programming languages in high demand

 TOP 10 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES THAT WILL KEEP YOU IN DEMAND IN 2022

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LATEST NEWS TECH NEWS TOP LIST

by Sayantani Sanyal Dec 2021

Programming languages

Learning programming languages might become a compulsion for aspiring tech professionals in the future

For almost any domain, including web development, machine learning, data science, or any other field, the most crucial prerequisite is the ability to program using programming languages. Over the years, the software development industry has exponentially grown at a much higher rate than ever imagined before, paving the way for an even lucrative career option for several aspiring software developers and programmers. The knowledge possessed by these professionals should align with the existing coding requirements of the industry. There are several programming languages to learn, but only the top programming languages provide all-around services and can be used for several purposes. In this article, we have listed the top 10 programming languages for 2022 that aspiring tech professionals should know.

JavaScript: JavaScript is one of the most well-known programming languages, with strong demand and preference. It is used by many well-known IT companies, including Uber, Google, and Microsoft, to name a few. JavaScript is well-known for its ability to add responsive features to web pages and other platforms. It seems reasonable to expect JavaScript to continue to dominate the industry in 2022.

Python: Python is the most preferred language for anyone who starts programming. It has a simple syntax, which is efficient for beginners to understand and use. It is widely used in web development, software programming, and many other uses. The language includes rich library support, automatic garbage collection, improved interaction with other languages, and enhanced GUI support.

Go: Go was developed in 2007 for APIs and web applications. It has recently become one of the fastest-growing programming languages due to its simplicity, as well as its ability to handle multicore, network systems, and massive codebases. It has gained massive popularity among hi-tech IT companies for its simple, modern structure and syntax familiarity.

LEARN THESE TOP 10 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES TO IMPRESS YOUR BOSS

TOP 10 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES YOU MUST ACE IN 2022

TOP 10 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES THAT BIG TECH COMPANIES USE

Kotlin: One of the major selling points for Koltin is that Google loves it. In fact, Kotlin has been Google’s most preferred programming language since 2017, meaning that apps and solutions built with this language get all kinds of perks before everyone else. Google appreciates the innovative features and functionalities for Kotlin-based apps, and developers can stay ahead of the competition by coding with this easy-to-use language.

C++: C++ has risen over the years and has become a go-to programming language for analysts and researchers. But it has also become quite popular for game development purposes. It is important to learn C++ in 2022 to become a competitive developer in the gaming industry. The language is extremely useful for system software development and integrating project management methodologies.

Java: The topmost object-oriented programming languages implement Java’s well-known algorithms to write concepts that can run anywhere. This allows Java programs to run on any system that supports Java, without the need for recompilation. The language is used to create Android apps, web, desktop, and scientific applications.

R Language: Several big tech companies use the R language to run their businesses. With the increasing demand for machine learning and data science in 2021, it is quite evident that R will be in-demand in 2022 and the skill to program with R might make the candidates stand out in front of employers. It is an open-source programming platform that includes a wide range of libraries and frameworks.

PHP: PHP is an open-source programming language created in 1990. Web developers find it essential to learn PHP as it is used to build more than 80% of the websites on the internet, including those like Facebook and Yahoo. With its increasing use cases over the years, PHP will definitely be in demand in 2022.

Scala: Scala is another language that is highly recommended for beginners due to its easy learning compatibility. It was designed as a general-purpose programming language, which can be used for object-oriented as well as functional programming.

Dart: Dart is quickly rising in the industry as a simple coding language, following the C language syntax. It means that Dart is pretty easy to learn and has a wide range of applications in multi-platform and cross-platform development. Learning Dart might not seem like an extreme necessity, but it does provide several added advantages to the developers over learning traditional programming languages. 

https://www.freecodecamp.org/news/learn-programming-free-software-development-courses-for-beginners/

Study in Italy: basic guide

 Study in Italy -- For Beginners --FAQs

An Old guide but good for basic queries..

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I did lot of research during search for fully funded PhD .

I hope this works for you. 

This article is only for itlay.

The only good thing about Italy is that it gives scholarship in Masters Level.

Q1. Which university should I apply for?

These are the universities:

1. Politecnico di Milano (Polimi) http://www.polinternational.polimi.it/what/prospective-students/

2. Politecnico di Torino (Polito) http://apply.polito.it/index_en.html

3. University of Trento http://international.unitn.it/engineering

4. University of Venice http://www.unive.it/nqcontent.cfm?a_id=10497

5. University of Bergamo http://www.unibg.it/struttura/en_struttura.asp?cerca=en_didattica_internazionalizzazione_02

6. University of Rome http://web.uniroma2.it/home-en.php?newlang=english University of Rome, Tor Vergata

7. University of Siena

8. University of Milan, Torino, Padova etc etc.

Further you should try Google and http://www.universitaly.com/index.php/

Q2. Can I get scholarship?

In the Politecnicos and Trento, the scholarships are assigned automatically and randomly, there is no other separate form to be filled. No one can tell if u will get scholarship if u have 75% or 100% marks. It is random, its Italy!

In Polimi and Polito another need based scholarship is available, in Polimi it is DSU and Polito it is EDISU. For DSU you can apply online the application opens in July. The procedure of DSU and EDISU is explained in another document in the group documents. You can find it in “files section” of the group. (https://www.facebook.com/groups/197164200312640/files/)

EDISU you will have to arrive to Italy to get.

If assigned DSU or EDISU or Uni scholarship, all your living expenses are covered including fees.

There are other similar scholarships in other universities with different names like OPERA etc. I have no personal experience of that.

Q3. Living Expenses:

Initially after arrival, the expenses are like this:

1. 260 euro stay permit fees

2. 400 euro normally house security fees, refunded when you leave the house

3. Rent of first month normally 200 - 300

4. University fees

5. Other food and transport expenses depend on you but around 150

6. Then the expenses come down to 300 - 350 per month.

7. In some cases it can be 250 per month if you are living with many people, but it depends.

Q4. Jobs: (Side jobs / Post education jobs)

No side jobs unless you know Italian language, even in that case it is not assured. It is not like UK or Australia. So if you are coming here relying on getting a side job DON’T COME.

After completion of education there are chances of getting jobs. It is luck, also Italy is not EUROPE EUROPE, it is like OK you can call yourself Europe. It is more like Pakistan of Europe. So you might be jobless for long time(I had been), and you might find a great job(some have got them) immediately. But still there is no security that yes now you will be rich.

Jobs normally pay 1200 euros a month, internships 600 and side job if you can get pays between 600 and 1200.

In Polimi you can apply for a 150 hours paid on campus job, there is a selection based on CV etc, and then you can work on campus, it is assigned once in a year. But the probability of assignation is less, so don't count on it.

Q5. Whether or not you should come:

If you are assigned scholarship then come, if not, then look at you financial condition and decide, in case of no scholarship, no job, the worst case scenario, you will need around 350 euros per month for yourself plus your university fees so it is not that cheap. In that case if you can go to Canada or Germany that will be better.

Here is a list of countries you should go to, in descending order:

Switzeland > Australia > Canada > Germany > Norway > Sweden > Denamrk > Netherlands > Austria > Italy.

The only good thing about Italy is that it gives scholarship in Masters Level.

Advice: Don’t care about ranking of university, don’t select a university, select a country. It’s the country that will provide good future, job security etc. Otherwise you can graduate from Polimi ranked 27 in the world but since you are in Italy, either remain jobless or if you are lucky earn the minimum scale of Europe.

How to get scholarship in Europe

 How to keep getting scholarships (and jobs) in Europe? 

5 tips and tricks from someone who did it. 

Here are five tips that I will give you if you want to survive in Europe and keep getting scholarships (and jobs).

1. Do not go after PR

Many Pakistani students come here and forget about the career they have. Instead, their focus is on getting permanent residence in the EU. Eventually, some of them do get a PR but everything comes at a cost. Their career is compromised, and they have to work odd jobs their whole lives. In contrast, I focused on my career. Therefore, changing countries within the EU was not a problem for me. Of course, that means I do not have PR, but that’s the sacrifice I am willing to make.

2. Do not focus on rich countries only

Everyone wants to study and live in Germany. No doubt that it has many job opportunities but also high competition. Also, the living standards in Germany are not as good as in Mediterranean countries like Spain and Italy. People are social and happy. The food is good and the weather is nice. Yes, the salary won’t be as good as in Germany but no country is perfect. If you really like Germany or the US, go for it. But if you just want to live somewhere nicer, there are other options.

3. Money vs. career mindset

Some people want to earn money, and some want to achieve their dreams (and earn money). The difference is in the preference. If money is what you are after, you will end up doing odd jobs and earn that money. But this will happen at the cost of your career. In short term, it is good to earn some cash, but investing your time and energies in you career will get you much further. Learn more skills, work on some nice research projects or volunteer. All of them will help you much more than some odd job. If you really need the money to survive, try freelancing because that will increase your skills and knowledge. That’s what I did when I was unemployed.

4. Learn an EU language

Yes, we all want to live in English-speaking countries but so do the millions of other people who speak English. The result is high competition and no place for average students like me. If you learn an EU language, your chances of getting employed can sky-rocket in the EU. Not to mention how it will make your life easier and worth living here. Research shows that learning a new language is also very good for the brain so you will become more intelligent.

5. Integrate into the EU

How to learn a language and culture of a country? The easier option is to enroll yourself in a language course but the best solution is to integrate yourself into society. Hang out with the locals and enjoy life. The famous proverb goes; when in Rome, do as the Romans do. Practice your language but also show your interest in their country. There is nothing wrong with being patriotic but sometimes we become too obsessed with our country and only want to talk about Pakistan. Show some interest in the country where you are living also. If Pakistan is perfect, there is no need to come here.

Here you go. Hope these tips help you enjoy your stay in the EU. Let me know what you think and if I missed something.